What links humans to the cosmos?
"What are the mysterious interconnections that we find both
in the sub-atomic world of quantum physics, and in the world of
human experience: phenomena such as telepathy, now well established
in the laboratory? We seem to be linked to each other and to the
world by mechanisms that science still hardly understands. This
is immensely significant, and we can hardly begin to understand
the many implications of these links."
Professor Brian Josephson, Nobel Prize winning physicist, Cambridge
University.
Paper published in Foundations of Physics, Vol. 21, pp. 197207,
1991, (c) Plenum Press.
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Biological Utilisation of Quantum NonLocality[1]
Brian D. Josephson[2] and Fotini Pallikari-Viras[3]
(N.B.: square brackets denote footnotes, round brackets references)
The perception of reality by biosystems is based on different,
and in certain respects more effective principles than those utilised
by the more formal procedures of science. As a result, what appears
as random pattern to the scientific method can be meaningful pattern
to a living organism. The existence of this complementary perception
of reality makes possible in principle effective use by organisms
of the direct interconnections between spatially separated objects
shown to exist in the work of J.S. Bell.
1. INTRODUCTION
Bell(1,2)[4] has given arguments that appear to demonstrate the
existence of direct interconnections between spatially separated
objects. But at the same time there are arguments(4-6) that appear
to show that no real physical manifestations of these interconnections
actually exist. The thesis developed in this paper is that it
is only from the point of view of quantum mechanics that these
connections appear to be unphysical and that there is a different,
complementary point of view, one associated specifically with
the activities of living organisms, in terms of which the interconnections
may be very concretely real, and capable of being put to practical
use.
The logic of the complementary point of view to which reference
has just been made is that the activities of living organisms
are governed by predominant principles (survival, and optimality
of the conditions of life) different to those of the scientist
(conformity to certain restrictions that are considered necessary
for "good" science). The perceptual processes of organisms
(e.g. processes such as vision) perform their functions in general
very effectively, but in a way that is hard to delineate in rigorous
scientific terms. It will be argued that as a result of this difference
the knowledge possessed by biosystems and the knowledge possessed
by science are qualitatively different, leading to an ability
of life to make use of Bell's non-locality in a way that is not
possible in the different situation of a controlled scientific
experiment.
The discourse that follows begins (Sec. 2) with a review of Bell's
theorem, discussing in particular the antithesis between the way
that Bell's argument appears to demonstrate the existence of direct
action at a distance, while at the same time quantum calculations
lead to the result that any such effects will disappear under
statistical averaging. Experiments on certain unusual human abilities(7,8)
suggest that the non-local effects do not invariably disappear
under averaging, a result that the present paper seeks to explain.
The explanation proposed here involves the issue of exactly what
kind of randomness is being presupposed when one performs such
statistical averaging. An answer to this question in general terms
is provided by causal (non-statistical) models of the phenomena
of the quantum realm such as that of Bohm(9). This kind of interpretation
assumes the relevance of particular probability distributions
in an appropriate phase space. The possibility that one needs
in general to deal with coexisting multiple representations of
reality (complementarity) is then considered' the implication
being that different kinds of probability distributions to those
relevant to quantum mechanical predictions may be appropriate
in cases such as those involving biosystems. From the point of
view of a biosystem itself, this possibility translates into one
that biosystems can have more discriminative knowledge of nature
than is obtainable by quantum measurement. As a result of this
higher degree of discrimination, the evolutionary and developmental
processes characteristic of biosystems can, given suitable initial
conditions, lead to focussed probability distributions that make
possible the kind of human abilities (i.e. psi functioning) to
which reference has been previously made.
2. BELL'S THEOREM AND NONLOCAL CONNECTIONS
We first review Bell's theorem. Its domain of relevance is of
a type of system, which we shall refer to here as an EPR-type
system, first discussed by Einstein, Podolsky and Rosen(10). EPR-type
systems are systems wherein a quantum object breaks up into parts
which after separating are observed by measuring instruments that
have no links of a type that can transmit information by normal
means to each other. A typical example of such a system, which
has been studied experimentally(11), involves measurement of the
correlated polarisations of the photons emitted in a two-photon
decay sequence. Bell's theorem consists of an inequality applicable
to the correlations observed in a range of different measurements,
and from it one can derive the corollary that no local model of
physical reality can exist whose statistical predictions would
be in agreement with those of quantum mechanics: in Bell's own
words( 1 ), if nature behaves in accordance with the statistical
predictions of quantum mechanics then "there must be a mechanism
whereby the setting of one measuring device can influence the
reading of another instrument, however remote". Experimental
results, while not being totally conclusive, are such as to point
towards this conclusion being valid.
The existence of such remote influences or connections is suggested
more directly by experiments on phenomena such as telepathy (the
direct connection of one mind with another) and psychokinesis
(the direct influence of mind on matter), both of which are examples
of so-called psi functioning or psychic phenomena. The reader
interested in learning about these phenomena (which are often
disregarded by orthodox science) is referred to the recent article
by Radin and Nelson(8) which analyses experiments relating to
them, as well as to the references cited therein (and especially
those relating to the publications of R.G. Jahn and collaborators,
and of H. Schmidt), and to Ref. 7[5].
3. DO THE INTERCONNECTIONS PERSIST UNDER STATISTICAL AVERAGING?
Ordinary quantum mechanical calculations, if one excludes from
consideration proposals such as that of Walker(12) that contain
special ad hoc modifications to the conventional theory, do not
seem to provide any clear mechanism leading to the occurrence
of phenomena where the effects of non-local connections are manifested
directly. Indeed, conventional quantum mechanical calculations(4,5)
suggest that whatever effects changing the setting of a measuring
device may have on _individual_ remote events, the _statistical
distribution_ of such events remains unaltered. Mermin(6) concludes
as a result that "The manifestation of this 'action at a
distance' is revealed only through a comparison of the data independently
gathered at A and at B" (the locations of the two measuring
instruments). He characterises the measurements carried out at
the remote location as being "entirely random".
But what is "entirely random"? What appears to be random
in a given situation depends on the context, on what one knows
and on one's point of view. Coded messages, the roll of a die,
output from a computer, or the movements of a person operating
a piece of machinery may all appear random if one does not know
the relevant details (the code that is used in the coded message,
the exact manner in which the die is thrown, what the computer
program or piece of machinery is and what it is doing) and yet
if one knows this information many of the details of such phenomena
can be understood. An alternative description of microphysical
reality to that provided by quantum mechanics, if any such exists,
may be associated with a different kind of statistical average.
What seems to be noise may no longer be noise, and the theorem
implying no manifestations of interconnectedness for the statistical
average may no longer apply.
But do situations actually exist in nature whose descriptions
involve less randomness in particular aspects than quantum mechanics
implies? In the past, it might have been stated unconditionally
that von Neumann had under very general conditions disproved the
existence of such a possibility, but it is now recognised(l3)
that the supposed proofs of these assertions contained assumptions
that are in fact unjustifiable. There exist arguments(l4-17) that
complementary descriptions to those of quantum mechanics can and
in all probability do occur. Detailed discussion of this issue
will play a central role in the analysis that follows.
4. CAUSAL INTERPRETATIONS OF QUANTUM MECHANICS
In the context of the present problem it is useful to think in
terms of causal interpretations of quantum mechanics. These are
models where the observed indeterminacy is a consequence of uncertainty
of the actual state of a system whose dynamical laws in themselves
are completely deterministic. Bohm's causal model(9) involves
an ensemble of particles distributed in phase space with a particular
self-consistent probability distribution function and moving in
accordance with certain deterministic laws. The statistical predictions
of quantum mechanics are reproduced exactly in a way that avoids
the usual introduction of unclear and arbitrary assumptions concerning
measurement, wave function collapse, or separation of a system
into observer and observed. The non locality which Bell showed
to be implicit in quantum mechanics is _explicit_ in Bohm's causal
model, in that the motion of the particles in the model is governed
by an interaction, determined by the quantum wave function of
the system, that is non-local.
In most common situations, averaging over the particle positions
in the causal model makes the mean direct influence of one particle
on another at large distances negligibly small. This is not so,
however, in EPR-type situations where the wave function has a
non-decomposability property which makes this interaction at a
distance significantly different from zero even at long range(13).
But, even in these situations, once we take an ensemble average,
using the special distribution function in phase space that assures
the statistical equivalence of the causal interpretation and quantum
mechanics, we revert to the quantum mechanical prediction that
statistically no influence at a distance can be demonstrated.
One may ask, however, why only these special distribution functions
should apply. Is there anything absolute about the ignorance implicit
in the use of these particular distribution functions? The argument
will be made in the following that other distribution functions,
with different statistical properties, are relevant in other contexts,
especially those associated with life.
Situations where a change in context leads to a new kind of statistical
distribution becoming relevant are indeed commonplace in science:
they occur for example whenever a phase transition occurs that
leads to a breaking of symmetry. As a result of symmetry breaking,
statistical distributions that are _Asymmetric_ with regard to
this symmetry may come into existence in situations where previously
only symmetric distributions were observable or relevant. Analogously,
it can be anticipated that special situations will exist whose
natural description involves probability distributions other than
the particular ones that arise in the _quantum formalism_.
5. MULTIPLE DESCRIPTIONS OF REALITY
We now discuss in some detail this idea that rather than a single,
universal, description of reality (such as that provided by quantum
mechanics) being appropriate in all circumstances, more than one
complementary or alternative form of knowledge may exist(14-17).
This state of affairs is most simply understood with reference
to a special feature of the quantum domain related to quantum
indeterminism, which we shall characterise as the _loss of universal
determinism_. This latter term is intended to reflect the fact
that in this domain quantum indeterminism renders impossible the
making of exact predictions on the basis of a _universal formula_
(which would be possible in principle in classical physics if
the relevant dynamical laws such as Maxwell's equations or Newton's
laws were known). We hypothesise that two alternative strategies
are possible for dealing with the loss of universal determinism.
The first, the method of science, is to retain conformity with
the demands of reproducibility and universality by the device
of replacing the no longer possible strict determinism by _statistical
deternunism_. The outcome of this approach is quantum mechanics.
The second, a method that is in general terms favoured by life,
involves renouncing the demand for universal knowledge in favour
of more specialised and purposeful adaptations to the more limited
class of situations that the organism or organisms concerned is
liable _naturally_ to encounter in the course of its life. A human
being learns, for example, the language that is spoken in his
or her own particular environment, rather than language in general.
These two strategies lead in different directions. The strategy
of science leads towards the accurate specification of form, while
that of life leads in the direction of meaning. These two directions,
form and meaning, are the two components of David Bohm's concept
relating to the universal nature of things, _soma-significance_(18).
Meaning is an aspect of reality tied to the achievement of goals
and to specific context that is sufficiently subtle and complex
as not to be representable by any closed formula. Furthermore,
the technique of statistical averaging is especially irrelevant
in the context of meaning, since its influence in general is to
transform the _meaningful_ into the Meaningless_. It is not useful
to consider the meaning of a particular word averaged over all
languages, and computing the statistics of word order and frequency
in a discourse tells one very little about the meaning of the
discourse. Investigations into meaning(18,19) are investigations
in a different direction to that in which one is led by scientific
investigations into reproducible form.
But science is involved with the accurate specification of form,
and this enforces the kind of _formal_ specification of
nature characteristic of quantum measurement theory. This contrasts
with the philosophical informality of classical physics with its
naive realism. The perceptual and interpretative processes of
living organisms do not admit of the formal specifications demanded
by quantum measurement theory. Therefore, as discussed in Ref.
17, there is no good reason to identify the class of experiments
defined according to the precepts of quantum measurement theory
with the category of all investigable phenomena. Indeed, the quantum
formalism does not apply in any obvious way to _natural_ situations,
situations such as those of the phenomena of life that come into
being by chance rather than by scientific design, and the common
belief that it should be possible in some way to apply quantum
mechanics to natural situations just as readily as to the controlled
experiment is one that seems to owe its existence to an extrapolation
that cannot, under close examination, be justified.
6. RANDOMNESS AND FOCUSSING
These arguments lead us to the conclusion that, because of the
different kind of perceptual and interpretative processes characteristic
of life compared with those of science, living organisms can possess
knowledge that is more detailed in certain aspects than is the
knowledge specified by the quantum theory. One may talk in terms
of higher discrimination and selectivity, which improvements can
be attributed a different kind of contact with nature. By way
of analogy, it can be compared to a process that makes contact
with individual atoms, relative to one that makes contact with
the macroscopic aspects of a system only.
From the point of view of a causal model such as that of Bohm's,
alternative kinds of probability distribution in phase space become
relevant. In general terms, these distributions can be characterised
as being highly focussed in relation to the organism's specific
goals. Such focussed behaviour in living organisms is typified
by, for example, the activities of a tightrope walker, or of a
darts player. Efficient focussing comes into being naturally over
the course of time as the consequence of processes of trial and
error learning occurring during the developmental process. Our
assumption in relation to psi functioning is that here also the
relevant probability distributions are highly focussed in relation
to goals, in a way that may become more effective over time as
development through learning takes place.
6.1. An Illustration
The kind of focussing process involved can be illustrated with
a simple example. This consists of a coil attached by a length
of wire to an ammeter a short distance away. The meter needle
can be caused to deflect by moving a magnet in the vicinity of
the coil. A person who does not understand the facts of magnetism
and attempting to produce a meter deflection in a particular direction
will at first move the magnet randomly and hence produce deflections
in a random direction. But he may in time discover the principle
that is involved and utilise the magnet in a non-random way, and
gain thus the ability to produce deflections in a prescribed direction
at will. In exemplification of the processes discussed above,
his learning process changes an initially random distribution
of magnet movements into one focussed with regard to the goal,
the principles referred to above. The proposal being made here
is essentially that mechanisms of a similar kind may be operative
at a _Microscopic_ level in biosystems.
7. SPECULATIVE MODELS
In the biological world, evolution through natural selection tends
to give rise to adaptive elaborations of preexisting phenotypes
(manifest behaviour). Thus a primitive sensitivity to light becomes
elaborated into more discriminating sensitivities and ultimately
into fully detailed vision. In the case of psi one may similarly
anticipate the development of forms of organisation of the nervous
system capable of interacting non-locally with other systems.
Such organisation has been discussed by C.N. Villars(20), who
starts with the assumption that in a number of types of situation
encountered in a quantum mechanical context, including EPR-type
situations, microphysical objects function as "centres of
perception", acting as if sensitive to non-local information.
Villars hypothesises that somewhere within the nervous system
forms of organisation of microphysical objects exist capable of
amplifying, selecting and combining the perceptions through non-local
connections of individual microphysical objects, in a way analogous
to the way in which the ordinary senses function through the working
together of many subunits. As a result we can have perceptions
of distant objects and events through the non-local connections
in the same kind of way as we acquire perception of the more local
environment through the ordinary senses. The scope and form of
such perceptions at a distance would be a function of the particular
forms of organisation and activity present in these postulated
sense-like processes. Except for the absence of a theoretical
mechanism for overcoming the limitations of ordinary quantum descriptions
by making use of an underlying causal model, Villars' proposals
are similar to those advocated here.
Further similar proposals have been made by Bohm(21) also, based
on his causal interpretation. His conclusion is that while, in
principle, coherent non-local effects of one system upon another
are possible, in practice such connections are "fragile,
and easily broken by almost any disturbance or perturbation",
and that they would occur only at very low temperatures or under
special conditions such as those pertaining in the EPR situation.
But in the picture advocated here, life has the ability, exemplified
by the example of the tightrope walker, to learn under conditions
that are not excessively unfavourable to it to neutralise of compensate
for the effects of external disturbances. Such compensation capacity
we assume to be functionally effective in respect to the "fragility"
referred to by Bohm also.
A comment by Bohm et al.(9) regarding the understanding of superconductivity
in the causal interpretation provides a clue as to what kind of
overall organisation might be relevant for psi functioning. This
situation is described in the following teens: "In the superconducting
state of a many-electron system, there is a stable overall organised
behaviour, in which the movements are coordinated by the quantum
potential so that the individual electrons are not scattered by
obstacles. One can say indeed that in such a state, the quantum
potential brings about a coordinated movement which can be thought
of as resembling a 'ballet dance'."
The assumption of a superconducting-like state provides an example
of a context where different organisms can be highly correlated.
Such a state may be relevant to the origin of life, or to the
Gaia hypothesis of Lovelock and Margulis(22). Perturbations such
as an increase in temperature cause the coordinated organisation
to break up, and this would provide a mechanism by which the amount
of linking of an individual organism to other systems through
non-local interconnections could be adjustable. One may imagine
that life may exist from the beginning (cf. Ref. 22) as a cooperative
whole directly interconnected at a distance by Bell type non-local
interactions, following which modifications through the course
of evolution cause organisms to be interconnected directly with
each other and with objects to an extent that is adapted to circumstances.
One can see conceptual similarities between psi skills and ordinary
skills, e.g. between the perceptual skills of hearing and telepathy
on the one hand' and between the forms of control of matter involved
in the control of the body and in psychokinesis on the other.
From this point of view, it is only in regard to the mode of interaction
that the ordinary phenomena and the analogous paranormal ones
differ from each other. These analogies will be discussed in more
detail elsewhere.
The theories discussed here have the feature, in contrast to
that of quantum mechanics, of being qualitative rather than quantitative.
This may be an unavoidable correlate of such aspects of nature,
stemming from a fundamental irreproducibility of biology and of
the phenomena connected with the indeterminism of the quantum
domain.
8. SUMMARY AND CONCLUDING REMARKS
The goal of this paper has been that of gaining some understanding,
within the framework of conventional science, of phenomena such
as telepathy and psychokinesis which (particularly in teens of
the actual experience(23,24)) seem to involve some form of direct
contact at a distance. While the non-local correlations found
in EPR-type systems seem at first sight(20) to provide a scientifically
valid basis for such direct contact (particularly for the case
of telepathy which has many features that parallel those of EPR-type
correlations), calculations using the formal apparatus of quantum
theory suggest that any such connections will be purely random
and thus unusable. But the self-consistent and completely logical
multiple-description view of knowledge advocated here, an alternative
to the conventional view that all knowledge may be reduced to
quantum mechanical knowledge, allows life to have its own potentialities,
beyond what the constraints of "good scientific method"
will allow, for knowing and for acting on the basis of such knowing.
Included in these categories of acting and knowing are psychic
functioning.
The present theory parallels in a number of respects the theory
of Walker(12) with its postulate that the statistical outcomes
of quantum phenomena can be modified by consciousness, and the
paper of Stapp(25), in which creative mind has a similar function.
These different approaches may all be representations of slightly
different aspects of the same underlying truth, gained by taking
as a starting point a range of different points of view.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We are grateful to Dr. Dipankar Home for discussions clarifying
concepts connected with the concept of multiple descriptions of
natural phenomena, and to Dr. M.J. Perry for comments on the manuscript.
FOOTNOTES
1 dedicated to J.S. Bell.
2 Cavendish Laboratory, Madingley Road, Cambridge CB3 0HE, UK.
3 permanent address, Physics Department, University of Athens,
104 Solonos Str., address for 1990-1 as in footnote 2.
4 all references authored by J.S. Bell are reprinted in Ref. 3.
5 The opinion of the authors regarding such phenomena is that
in the long run they will be accepted by science and confirmed
by it. Arguments in support of this belief fall outside the scope
of this paper.
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